Isotopes of carbon

Isotopes of carbon (₆C)
Standard atomic weight Ar°(C)
	[12.0096, 12.0116][1]; 12.011±0.002 (abridged)[2];

Carbon (₆C) has 14 known isotopes, from ⁸
C
to ²⁰
C
as well as ²²
C
, of which ¹²
C
and ¹³
C
are stable. The longest-lived radioisotope is ¹⁴
C
, with a half-life of 5.70(3)×10³ years. This is also the only carbon radioisotope found in nature, as trace quantities are formed cosmogenically by the reaction ¹⁴
N
+
n
→ ¹⁴
C
+ ¹
H
. The most stable artificial radioisotope is ¹¹
C
, which has a half-life of 20.3402(53) min. All other radioisotopes have half-lives under 20 seconds, most less than 200 milliseconds. The least stable isotope is ⁸
C
, with a half-life of 3.5(1.4)×10⁻²¹ s. Light isotopes tend to decay into isotopes of boron and heavy ones tend to decay into isotopes of nitrogen.

List of isotopes

Nuclide	Z	N	Isotopic mass (Da)[3] [n 1]	Half-life[4] [resonance width]	Decay mode[4] [n 2]	Daughter isotope [n 3]	Spin and parity[4] [n 4][n 5]	Natural abundance (mole fraction)
Nuclide	Z	N	Isotopic mass (Da)[3] [n 1]	Half-life[4] [resonance width]	Decay mode[4] [n 2]	Daughter isotope [n 3]	Spin and parity[4] [n 4][n 5]	Normal proportion[4]	Range of variation
⁸ C	6	2	8.037643(20)	3.5(1.4) zs [230(50) keV]	2p	⁶ Be [n 6]	0+
⁹ C	6	3	9.0310372(23)	126.5(9) ms	β⁺ (54.1(1.7)%)	⁹ B	3/2−
					β⁺α (38.4(1.6)%)	⁵ Li [n 7]
					β⁺p (7.5(6)%)	⁸ Be [n 8]
¹⁰ C	6	4	10.01685322(8)	19.3011(15) s	β⁺	¹⁰ B	0+
¹¹ C [n 9]	6	5	11.01143260(6)	20.3402(53) min	β⁺	¹¹ B	3/2−
^11m C	12160(40) keV				p ?[n 10]	¹⁰ B ?	1/2+
¹² C	6	6	12 exactly[n 11]	Stable			0+	[0.9884, 0.9904][5]
¹³ C [n 12]	6	7	13.003354835336(252)	Stable			1/2−	[0.0096, 0.0116][5]
¹⁴ C [n 13]	6	8	14.003241989(4)	5.70(3)×10³ y	β⁻	¹⁴ N	0+	Trace[n 14]	< 10⁻¹²
^14m C	22100(100) keV				IT	¹⁴ C	(2−)
¹⁵ C	6	9	15.0105993(9)	2.449(5) s	β⁻	¹⁵ N	1/2+
¹⁶ C	6	10	16.014701(4)	750(6) ms	β⁻n (99.0(3)%)	¹⁵ N	0+
¹⁶ C	6	10	16.014701(4)	750(6) ms	β⁻ (1.0(3)%)	¹⁶ N	0+
¹⁷ C	6	11	17.022579(19)	193(6) ms	β⁻ (71.6(1.3)%)	¹⁷ N	3/2+
					β⁻n (28.4(1.3)%)	¹⁶ N
					β⁻2n ?[n 10]	¹⁵ N ?
¹⁸ C	6	12	18.02675(3)	92(2) ms	β⁻ (68.5(1.5)%)	¹⁸ N	0+
					β⁻n (31.5(1.5)%)	¹⁷ N
					β⁻2n ?[n 10]	¹⁶ N ?
¹⁹ C [n 15]	6	13	19.03480(11)	46.2(2.3) ms	β⁻n (47(3)%)	¹⁸ N	1/2+
					β⁻ (46.0(4.2)%)	¹⁹ N
					β⁻2n (7(3)%)	¹⁷ N
²⁰ C	6	14	20.04026(25)	16(3) ms	β⁻n (70(11)%)	¹⁹ N	0+
					β⁻2n (< 18.6%)	¹⁸ N
					β⁻ (> 11.4%)	²⁰ N
²² C [n 16]	6	16	22.05755(25)	6.2(1.3) ms	β⁻n (61(14)%)	²¹ N	0+
					β⁻2n (< 37%)	²⁰ N
					β⁻ (> 2%)	²² N
This table header & footer:

( ) – Uncertainty (1σ) is given in concise form in parentheses after the corresponding last digits.
Modes of decay:

EC: Electron capture

n: Neutron emission

p: Proton emission
Bold symbol as daughter – Daughter product is stable.
( ) spin value – Indicates spin with weak assignment arguments.
# – Values marked # are not purely derived from experimental data, but at least partly from trends of neighboring nuclides (TNN).
Subsequently decays by double proton emission to ⁴
He
for a net reaction of ⁸
C
→ ⁴
He
+ 4¹
H
Immediately decays by proton emission to ⁴
He
for a net reaction of ⁹
C
→ 2 ⁴
He
+ ¹
H
+
e⁺
Immediately decays into two ⁴
He
atoms for a net reaction of ⁹
C
→ 2 ⁴
He
+ ¹
H
+
e⁺
Used for labeling molecules in PET scans
Decay mode shown is energetically allowed, but has not been experimentally observed to occur in this nuclide.
The unified atomic mass unit is defined as 1/12 of the mass of an unbound atom of carbon-12 in its ground state.
Ratio of ¹²C to ¹³C used to measure biological productivity in ancient times and differing types of photosynthesis
Has an important use in radiodating (see carbon dating)
Primarily cosmogenic, produced by neutrons striking atoms of ¹⁴
N
(¹⁴
N
+
n
→ ¹⁴
C
+ ¹
H
)
Has 1 halo neutron
Has 2 halo neutrons

Carbon-11

Carbon-11 or ¹¹
C
is a radioactive isotope of carbon that decays to boron-11. This decay mainly occurs due to positron emission, with around 0.19–0.23% of decays instead occurring by electron capture.[6][7] It has a half-life of 20.3402(53) min.

¹¹
C
→ ¹¹
B
+
e⁺
+
ν
_e + 0.96 MeV

¹¹
C
+
e⁻
→ ¹¹
B
+
ν
_e + 1.98 MeV

It is produced from nitrogen in a cyclotron by the reaction

¹⁴
N
+
p
→ ¹¹
C
+ ⁴
He

Carbon-11 is commonly used as a radioisotope for the radioactive labeling of molecules in positron emission tomography. Among the many molecules used in this context are the radioligands [¹¹
C
]DASB and [¹¹
C
]Cimbi-5.

Natural isotopes

There are three naturally occurring isotopes of carbon: 12, 13, and 14. ¹²
C
and ¹³
C
are stable, occurring in a natural proportion of approximately 93:1. ¹⁴
C
is produced by thermal neutrons from cosmic radiation in the upper atmosphere, and is transported down to earth to be absorbed by living biological material. Isotopically, ¹⁴
C
constitutes a negligible part; but, since it is radioactive with a half-life of 5.70(3)×10³ years, it is radiometrically detectable. Since dead tissue does not absorb ¹⁴
C
, the amount of ¹⁴
C
is one of the methods used within the field of archeology for radiometric dating of biological material.

Paleoclimate

¹²
C
and ¹³
C
are measured as the isotope ratio δ¹³C in benthic foraminifera and used as a proxy for nutrient cycling and the temperature dependent air–sea exchange of CO₂ (ventilation).[8] Plants find it easier to use the lighter isotopes (¹²
C
) when they convert sunlight and carbon dioxide into food. For example, large blooms of plankton (free-floating organisms) absorb large amounts of ¹²
C
from the oceans. Originally, the ¹²
C
was mostly incorporated into the seawater from the atmosphere. If the oceans that the plankton live in are stratified (meaning that there are layers of warm water near the top, and colder water deeper down), then the surface water does not mix very much with the deeper waters, so that when the plankton dies, it sinks and takes away ¹²
C
from the surface, leaving the surface layers relatively rich in ¹³
C
. Where cold waters well up from the depths (such as in the North Atlantic), the water carries ¹²
C
back up with it; when the ocean was less stratified than today, there was much more ¹²
C
in the skeletons of surface-dwelling species. Other indicators of past climate include the presence of tropical species and coral growth rings.[9]

Tracing food sources and diets

The quantities of the different isotopes can be measured by mass spectrometry and compared to a standard; the result (e.g., the delta of the ¹³
C
= δ¹³
C
) is expressed as parts per thousand (‰):[10]

\delta {\ce {^{13}C}}=\left({\frac {\left({\frac {{\ce {^{13}C}}}{{\ce {^{12}C}}}}\right)_{\text{sample}}}{\left({\frac {{\ce {^{13}C}}}{{\ce {^{12}C}}}}\right)_{\text{standard}}}}-1\right)\times 1000

‰

Stable carbon isotopes in carbon dioxide are utilized differentially by plants during photosynthesis. Grasses in temperate climates (barley, rice, wheat, rye, and oats, plus sunflower, potato, tomatoes, peanuts, cotton, sugar beet, and most trees and their nuts or fruits, roses, and Kentucky bluegrass) follow a C3 photosynthetic pathway that will yield δ¹³C values averaging about −26.5‰. Grasses in hot arid climates (maize in particular, but also millet, sorghum, sugar cane, and crabgrass) follow a C4 photosynthetic pathway that produces δ¹³C values averaging about −12.5‰.[11]

It follows that eating these different plants will affect the δ¹³C values in the consumer's body tissues. If an animal (or human) eats only C3 plants, their δ¹³C values will be from −18.5 to −22.0‰ in their bone collagen and −14.5‰ in the hydroxylapatite of their teeth and bones.[12]

In contrast, C4 feeders will have bone collagen with a value of −7.5‰ and hydroxylapatite value of −0.5‰.

In actual case studies, millet and maize eaters can easily be distinguished from rice and wheat eaters. Studying how these dietary preferences are distributed geographically through time can illuminate migration paths of people and dispersal paths of different agricultural crops. However, human groups have often mixed C3 and C4 plants (northern Chinese historically subsisted on wheat and millet), or mixed plant and animal groups together (for example, southeastern Chinese subsisting on rice and fish).[13]

References

"Standard Atomic Weights: Carbon". CIAAW. 2009.
Prohaska, Thomas; Irrgeher, Johanna; Benefield, Jacqueline; Böhlke, John K.; Chesson, Lesley A.; Coplen, Tyler B.; Ding, Tiping; Dunn, Philip J. H.; Gröning, Manfred; Holden, Norman E.; Meijer, Harro A. J. (2022-05-04). "Standard atomic weights of the elements 2021 (IUPAC Technical Report)". Pure and Applied Chemistry. doi:10.1515/pac-2019-0603. ISSN 1365-3075.
Wang, Meng; Huang, W.J.; Kondev, F.G.; Audi, G.; Naimi, S. (2021). "The AME 2020 atomic mass evaluation (II). Tables, graphs and references*". Chinese Physics C. 45 (3): 030003. doi:10.1088/1674-1137/abddaf.
Kondev, F. G.; Wang, M.; Huang, W. J.; Naimi, S.; Audi, G. (2021). "The NUBASE2020 evaluation of nuclear properties" (PDF). Chinese Physics C. 45 (3): 030001. doi:10.1088/1674-1137/abddae.
"Atomic Weight of Carbon". CIAAW.
Scobie, J.; Lewis, G. M. (1 September 1957). "K-capture in carbon 11". Philosophical Magazine. 2 (21): 1089–1099. Bibcode:1957PMag....2.1089S. doi:10.1080/14786435708242737.
Campbell, J. L.; Leiper, W.; Ledingham, K. W. D.; Drever, R. W. P. (1967-04-11). "The ratio of K-capture to positron emission in the decay of ¹¹C". Nuclear Physics A. 96 (2): 279–287. Bibcode:1967NuPhA..96..279C. doi:10.1016/0375-9474(67)90712-9.
Lynch-Stieglitz, Jean; Stocker, Thomas F.; Broecker, Wallace S.; Fairbanks, Richard G. (1995). "The influence of air-sea exchange on the isotopic composition of oceanic carbon: Observations and modeling". Global Biogeochemical Cycles. 9 (4): 653–665. Bibcode:1995GBioC...9..653L. doi:10.1029/95GB02574. S2CID 129194624.
Tim Flannery The weather makers: the history & future of climate change, The Text Publishing Company, Melbourne, Australia. ISBN 1-920885-84-6
Miller, Charles B.; Wheeler, Patricia (2012). Biological oceanography (2nd ed.). Chichester, West Sussex: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. p. 186. ISBN 9781444333022. OCLC 794619582.
O'Leary, Marion H. (May 1988). "Carbon Isotopes in Photosynthesis" (PDF). BioScience. 38 (5): 328–336. doi:10.2307/1310735. JSTOR 1310735. S2CID 29110460. Retrieved 17 November 2022.
Tycot, R. H. (2004). M. Martini; M. Milazzo; M. Piacentini (eds.). "Stable isotopes and diet: you are what you eat" (PDF). Proceedings of the International School of Physics "Enrico Fermi" Course CLIV.
Richard, Hedges (2006). "Where does our protein come from?". British Journal of Nutrition. 95 (6): 1031–2. doi:10.1079/bjn20061782. PMID 16768822.

This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.

[4] ( ) – Uncertainty (1σ) is given in concise form in parentheses after the corresponding last digits.

[6] Modes of decay:

EC: Electron capture

n: Neutron emission

p: Proton emission

[7] Bold symbol as daughter – Daughter product is stable.

[8] ( ) spin value – Indicates spin with weak assignment arguments.

[TNN-9] # – Values marked # are not purely derived from experimental data, but at least partly from trends of neighboring nuclides (TNN).

[10] Subsequently decays by double proton emission to ⁴
He
for a net reaction of ⁸
C
→ ⁴
He
+ 4¹
H

[11] Immediately decays by proton emission to ⁴
He
for a net reaction of ⁹
C
→ 2 ⁴
He
+ ¹
H
+
e⁺

[12] Immediately decays into two ⁴
He
atoms for a net reaction of ⁹
C
→ 2 ⁴
He
+ ¹
H
+
e⁺

[13] Used for labeling molecules in PET scans

[decay_mode_1-14] Decay mode shown is energetically allowed, but has not been experimentally observed to occur in this nuclide.

[15] The unified atomic mass unit is defined as 1/12 of the mass of an unbound atom of carbon-12 in its ground state.

[17] Ratio of ¹²C to ¹³C used to measure biological productivity in ancient times and differing types of photosynthesis

[18] Has an important use in radiodating (see carbon dating)

[19] Primarily cosmogenic, produced by neutrons striking atoms of ¹⁴
N
(¹⁴
N
+
n
→ ¹⁴
C
+ ¹
H
)

[20] Has 1 halo neutron

[21] Has 2 halo neutrons

[1] "Standard Atomic Weights: Carbon". CIAAW. 2009.

[CIAAW2021-2] Prohaska, Thomas; Irrgeher, Johanna; Benefield, Jacqueline; Böhlke, John K.; Chesson, Lesley A.; Coplen, Tyler B.; Ding, Tiping; Dunn, Philip J. H.; Gröning, Manfred; Holden, Norman E.; Meijer, Harro A. J. (2022-05-04). "Standard atomic weights of the elements 2021 (IUPAC Technical Report)". Pure and Applied Chemistry. doi:10.1515/pac-2019-0603. ISSN 1365-3075.

[AME2020_II-3] Wang, Meng; Huang, W.J.; Kondev, F.G.; Audi, G.; Naimi, S. (2021). "The AME 2020 atomic mass evaluation (II). Tables, graphs and references*". Chinese Physics C. 45 (3): 030003. doi:10.1088/1674-1137/abddaf.

[NUBASE2020-5] Kondev, F. G.; Wang, M.; Huang, W. J.; Naimi, S.; Audi, G. (2021). "The NUBASE2020 evaluation of nuclear properties" (PDF). Chinese Physics C. 45 (3): 030001. doi:10.1088/1674-1137/abddae.

[Atomic_Weight_of_Carbon-16] "Atomic Weight of Carbon". CIAAW.

[11C-Scobie-22] Scobie, J.; Lewis, G. M. (1 September 1957). "K-capture in carbon 11". Philosophical Magazine. 2 (21): 1089–1099. Bibcode:1957PMag....2.1089S. doi:10.1080/14786435708242737.

[11C-Campbell-23] Campbell, J. L.; Leiper, W.; Ledingham, K. W. D.; Drever, R. W. P. (1967-04-11). "The ratio of K-capture to positron emission in the decay of ¹¹C". Nuclear Physics A. 96 (2): 279–287. Bibcode:1967NuPhA..96..279C. doi:10.1016/0375-9474(67)90712-9.

[24] Lynch-Stieglitz, Jean; Stocker, Thomas F.; Broecker, Wallace S.; Fairbanks, Richard G. (1995). "The influence of air-sea exchange on the isotopic composition of oceanic carbon: Observations and modeling". Global Biogeochemical Cycles. 9 (4): 653–665. Bibcode:1995GBioC...9..653L. doi:10.1029/95GB02574. S2CID 129194624.

[C-Flannery-25] Tim Flannery The weather makers: the history & future of climate change, The Text Publishing Company, Melbourne, Australia. ISBN 1-920885-84-6

[C-Miller-26] Miller, Charles B.; Wheeler, Patricia (2012). Biological oceanography (2nd ed.). Chichester, West Sussex: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. p. 186. ISBN 9781444333022. OCLC 794619582.

[Oleary98-27] O'Leary, Marion H. (May 1988). "Carbon Isotopes in Photosynthesis" (PDF). BioScience. 38 (5): 328–336. doi:10.2307/1310735. JSTOR 1310735. S2CID 29110460. Retrieved 17 November 2022.

[C-Tycot-28] Tycot, R. H. (2004). M. Martini; M. Milazzo; M. Piacentini (eds.). "Stable isotopes and diet: you are what you eat" (PDF). Proceedings of the International School of Physics "Enrico Fermi" Course CLIV.

[C-Richard-29] Richard, Hedges (2006). "Where does our protein come from?". British Journal of Nutrition. 95 (6): 1031–2. doi:10.1079/bjn20061782. PMID 16768822.

EC:	Electron capture
n:	Neutron emission
p:	Proton emission