Substitution reaction

In organic (and inorganic) chemistry, nucleophilic substitution is a fundamental class of reactions in which a nucleophile selectively bonds with or attacks the positive or partially positive charge on an atom or a group of atoms. As it does so, it replaces a weaker nucleophile, which then becomes a leaving group; the remaining positive or partially positive atom becomes an electrophile. The whole molecular entity of which the electrophile and the leaving group are part is usually called the substrate.[1]

The most general form for the reaction may be given as

${\displaystyle {\ce {Nuc{\mathbf {:}}- + R-LG -> R-Nuc{}+ LG{\mathbf {:}}-}}}$

where R−LG indicates the substrate. The electron pair (:) from the nucleophile (Nuc:) attacks the substrate (R−LG), forming a new covalent bond Nuc−R−LG. The prior state of charge is restored when the leaving group (LG) departs with an electron pair. The principal product in this case is R−Nuc. In such reactions, the nucleophile is usually electrically neutral or negatively charged, whereas the substrate is typically neutral or positively charged.

An example of nucleophilic substitution is the hydrolysis of an alkyl bromide, R−Br, under basic conditions, where the attacking nucleophile is the base OH⁻ and the leaving group is Br⁻:

${\displaystyle {\ce {R-Br + OH- -> R-OH + Br-}}}$

Nucleophilic substitution reactions are commonplace in organic chemistry, and they can be broadly categorized as taking place at a carbon of a saturated aliphatic compound carbon or (less often) at an aromatic or other unsaturated carbon center.[1]

Electrophiles are involved in electrophilic substitution reactions, particularly in electrophilic aromatic substitutions.

In this example, the benzene ring's electron resonance structure is attacked by an electrophile E⁺. The resonating bond is broken and a carbocation resonating structure results. Finally a proton is kicked out and a new aromatic compound is formed.

Electrophilic reactions to other unsaturated compounds than arenes generally lead to electrophilic addition rather than substitution.

A radical substitution reaction involves radicals. An example is the Hunsdiecker reaction.

Coupling reactions are a class of metal-catalyzed reactions involving an organometallic compound RM and an organic halide R′X that together react to form a compound of the type R-R′ with formation of a new carbon–carbon bond. Examples include the Heck reaction, Ullmann reaction, and Wurtz–Fittig reaction. Many variations exist.[3]

Substituted compounds are compounds where one or more hydrogen atoms have been replaced with something else such as an alkyl, hydroxy, or halogen. More can be found on the substituted compounds page.

While it is common to discuss substitution reactions in the context of organic chemistry, the reaction is generic and applies to a wide range of compounds. Ligands in coordination complexes are susceptible to substitution. Both associative and dissociative mechanisms have been observed.[4][5]

Associative substitution, for example, is typically applied to organometallic and coordination complexes, but resembles the Sn2 mechanism in organic chemistry. The opposite pathway is dissociative substitution, being analogous to the Sn1 pathway.

Examples of associative mechanisms are commonly found in the chemistry of 16e square planar metal complexes, e.g. Vaska's complex and tetrachloroplatinate. The rate law is governed by the Eigen–Wilkins Mechanism.

Dissociative substitution resembles the S_N1 mechanism in organic chemistry. This pathway can be well described by the cis effect, or the labilization of CO ligands in the cis position. Complexes that undergo dissociative substitution are often coordinatively saturated and often have octahedral molecular geometry. The entropy of activation is characteristically positive for these reactions, which indicates that the disorder of the reacting system increases in the rate-determining step. Dissociative pathways are characterized by a rate determining step that involves release of a ligand from the coordination sphere of the metal undergoing substitution. The concentration of the substituting nucleophile has no influence on this rate, and an intermediate of reduced coordination number can be detected. The reaction can be described with k₁, k₋₁ and k₂, which are the rate constants of their corresponding intermediate reaction steps:

${\displaystyle {\ce {L_{\mathit {n}}M-L<=>[-\mathrm {L} ,k_{1}][+\mathrm {L} ,k_{-1}]L_{\mathit {n}}M-\Box ->[+\mathrm {L} ',k_{2}]L_{\mathit {n}}M-L'}}}$

Normally the rate determining step is the dissociation of L from the complex, and [L'] does not affect the rate of reaction, leading to the simple rate equation:

${\displaystyle {\ce {Rate={{\mathit {k}}_{1}[L_{\mathit {n}}M-L]}}}}$

• Imyanitov, Naum S. (1993). "Is This Reaction a Substitution, Oxidation-Reduction, or Transfer?". J. Chem. Educ. 70 (1): 14–16. Bibcode:1993JChEd..70...14I. doi:10.1021/ed070p14.