List of chemical elements

118 chemical elements have been identified and named officially by IUPAC. A chemical element, often simply called an element, is a type of atom which has a specific number of protons in its atomic nucleus (i.e., a specific atomic number, or Z).[1]

The definitive visualisation of all 118 elements is the periodic table of the elements, whose history along the principles of the periodic law was one of the founding developments of modern chemistry. It is a tabular arrangement of the elements by their chemical properties that usually uses abbreviated chemical symbols in place of full element names, but the linear list format presented here is also useful. Like the periodic table, the list below organizes the elements by the number of protons in their atoms; it can also be organized by other properties, such as atomic weight, density, and electronegativity. For more detailed information about the origins of element names, see List of chemical element name etymologies.

List
List of chemical elements
Element Origin of name[2][3] Group Period Block Standard
atomic
weight Ar°(E)[lower-alpha 1]		 Density[lower-alpha 2][lower-alpha 3] Melting point[lower-alpha 4] Boiling point[lower-alpha 5] Specific
heat
capacity[lower-alpha 6]		 Electro­negativity[lower-alpha 7] Abundance
in Earth's
crust[lower-alpha 8]		 Origin[lower-alpha 9] Phase at r.t.[lower-alpha 10]
Atomic number
Z		 Symbol Name (Da) (g/cm3) (K) (K) (J/g · K) (mg/kg)
 
1 H Hydrogen Greek elements hydro- and -gen, 'water-forming' 1 1 s-block 1.0080 0.00008988 14.01 20.28 14.304 2.20 1400 primordial gas
2 He Helium Greek hḗlios, 'sun' 18 1 s-block 4.0026 0.0001785 –[lower-alpha 11] 4.22 5.193 – 0.008 primordial gas
3 Li Lithium Greek líthos, 'stone' 1 2 s-block 6.94 0.534 453.69 1560 3.582 0.98 20 primordial solid
4 Be Beryllium Beryl, a mineral (ultimately from the name of Belur in southern India)[4] 2 2 s-block 9.0122 1.85 1560 2742 1.825 1.57 2.8 primordial solid
5 B Boron Borax, a mineral (from Arabic bawraq, Middle Persian *bōrag) 13 2 p-block 10.81 2.34 2349 4200 1.026 2.04 10 primordial solid
6 C Carbon Latin carbo, 'coal' 14 2 p-block 12.011 2.267 >4000 4300 0.709 2.55 200 primordial solid
7 N Nitrogen Greek nítron and -gen, 'niter-forming' 15 2 p-block 14.007 0.0012506 63.15 77.36 1.04 3.04 19 primordial gas
8 O Oxygen Greek oxy- and -gen, 'acid-forming' 16 2 p-block 15.999 0.001429 54.36 90.20 0.918 3.44 461000 primordial gas
9 F Fluorine Latin fluere, 'to flow' 17 2 p-block 18.998 0.001696 53.53 85.03 0.824 3.98 585 primordial gas
10 Ne Neon Greek néon, 'new' 18 2 p-block 20.180 0.0009002 24.56 27.07 1.03 – 0.005 primordial gas
11 Na Sodium Coined by Humphry Davy who first isolated it, from English soda (specifically caustic soda), via Italian from Arabic ṣudāʕ 'headache'
 ·  Symbol Na is derived from Neo-Latin natrium, coined from German Natron, 'natron'		 1 3 s-block 22.990 0.968 370.87 1156 1.228 0.93 23600 primordial solid
12 Mg Magnesium Magnesia, a district of Eastern Thessaly in Greece 2 3 s-block 24.305 1.738 923 1363 1.023 1.31 23300 primordial solid
13 Al Aluminium Alumina, from Latin alumen (gen. aluminis), 'bitter salt, alum' 13 3 p-block 26.982 2.70 933.47 2792 0.897 1.61 82300 primordial solid
14 Si Silicon Latin silex, 'flint' (originally silicium) 14 3 p-block 28.085 2.3290 1687 3538 0.705 1.9 282000 primordial solid
15 P Phosphorus Greek phōsphóros, 'light-bearing' 15 3 p-block 30.974 1.823 317.30 550 0.769 2.19 1050 primordial solid
16 S Sulfur Latin 16 3 p-block 32.06 2.07 388.36 717.87 0.71 2.58 350 primordial solid
17 Cl Chlorine Greek chlōrós, 'greenish yellow' 17 3 p-block 35.45 0.0032 171.6 239.11 0.479 3.16 145 primordial gas
18 Ar Argon Greek argós, 'idle' (because of its inertness) 18 3 p-block 39.95 0.001784 83.80 87.30 0.52 – 3.5 primordial gas
19 K Potassium Neo-Latin potassa, 'potash', itself from pot and ash
 ·  Symbol K is derived from Neo-Latin kalium, from German		 1 4 s-block 39.098 0.89 336.53 1032 0.757 0.82 20900 primordial solid
20 Ca Calcium Latin calx, 'lime' 2 4 s-block 40.078 1.55 1115 1757 0.647 1.00 41500 primordial solid
21 Sc Scandium Latin Scandia, 'Scandinavia' 3 4 d-block 44.956 2.985 1814 3109 0.568 1.36 22 primordial solid
22 Ti Titanium Titans, the sons of the earth goddess of Greek mythology 4 4 d-block 47.867 4.506 1941 3560 0.523 1.54 5650 primordial solid
23 V Vanadium Vanadis, an Old Norse name for the Scandinavian goddess Freyja 5 4 d-block 50.942 6.11 2183 3680 0.489 1.63 120 primordial solid
24 Cr Chromium Greek chróma, 'colour' 6 4 d-block 51.996 7.15 2180 2944 0.449 1.66 102 primordial solid
25 Mn Manganese Corrupted from magnesia negra; see § magnesium 7 4 d-block 54.938 7.21 1519 2334 0.479 1.55 950 primordial solid
26 Fe Iron English, from Proto-Celtic *īsarnom ('iron'), from a root meaning 'blood'
 ·  Symbol Fe is derived from Latin ferrum		 8 4 d-block 55.845 7.874 1811 3134 0.449 1.83 56300 primordial solid
27 Co Cobalt German Kobold, 'goblin' 9 4 d-block 58.933 8.90 1768 3200 0.421 1.88 25 primordial solid
28 Ni Nickel Nickel, a mischievous sprite of German miner mythology 10 4 d-block 58.693 8.908 1728 3186 0.444 1.91 84 primordial solid
29 Cu Copper English, from Latin cuprum, from Ancient Greek Kýpros 'Cyprus' 11 4 d-block 63.546 8.96 1357.77 2835 0.385 1.90 60 primordial solid
30 Zn Zinc Most likely from German Zinke, 'prong' or 'tooth', though some suggest Persian sang, 'stone' 12 4 d-block 65.38 7.14 692.88 1180 0.388 1.65 70 primordial solid
31 Ga Gallium Latin Gallia, 'France' 13 4 p-block 69.723 5.91 302.9146 2673 0.371 1.81 19 primordial solid
32 Ge Germanium Latin Germania, 'Germany' 14 4 p-block 72.630 5.323 1211.40 3106 0.32 2.01 1.5 primordial solid
33 As Arsenic Middle English, from Middle French arsenic, from Greek arsenikón 'yellow arsenic' (influenced by arsenikós, 'masculine' or 'virile'), from a West Asian wanderword ultimately from Old Iranian *zarniya-ka, 'golden' 15 4 p-block 74.922 5.727 1090[lower-alpha 12] 887 0.329 2.18 1.8 primordial solid
34 Se Selenium Greek selḗnē, 'moon' 16 4 p-block 78.971 4.81 453 958 0.321 2.55 0.05 primordial solid
35 Br Bromine Greek brômos, 'stench' 17 4 p-block 79.904 3.1028 265.8 332.0 0.474 2.96 2.4 primordial liquid
36 Kr Krypton Greek kryptós, 'hidden' 18 4 p-block 83.798 0.003749 115.79 119.93 0.248 3.00 1×10−4 primordial gas
37 Rb Rubidium Latin rubidus, 'deep red' 1 5 s-block 85.468 1.532 312.46 961 0.363 0.82 90 primordial solid
38 Sr Strontium Strontian, a village in Scotland, where it was found 2 5 s-block 87.62 2.64 1050 1655 0.301 0.95 370 primordial solid
39 Y Yttrium Ytterby, Sweden, where it was found; see also terbium, erbium, ytterbium 3 5 d-block 88.906 4.472 1799 3609 0.298 1.22 33 primordial solid
40 Zr Zirconium Zircon, a mineral, from Persian zargun, 'gold-hued' 4 5 d-block 91.224 6.52 2128 4682 0.278 1.33 165 primordial solid
41 Nb Niobium Niobe, daughter of king Tantalus from Greek mythology; see also tantalum 5 5 d-block 92.906 8.57 2750 5017 0.265 1.6 20 primordial solid
42 Mo Molybdenum Greek molýbdaina, 'piece of lead', from mólybdos, 'lead', due to confusion with lead ore galena (PbS) 6 5 d-block 95.95 10.28 2896 4912 0.251 2.16 1.2 primordial solid
43 Tc Technetium Greek tekhnētós, 'artificial' 7 5 d-block [97][lower-alpha 1] 11 2430 4538 – 1.9 ~ 3×10−9 from decay solid
44 Ru Ruthenium Neo-Latin Ruthenia, 'Russia' 8 5 d-block 101.07 12.45 2607 4423 0.238 2.2 0.001 primordial solid
45 Rh Rhodium Greek rhodóeis, 'rose-coloured', from rhódon, 'rose' 9 5 d-block 102.91 12.41 2237 3968 0.243 2.28 0.001 primordial solid
46 Pd Palladium Pallas, an asteroid, considered a planet at the time 10 5 d-block 106.42 12.023 1828.05 3236 0.244 2.20 0.015 primordial solid
47 Ag Silver English, from a common Germanic root
 ·  Symbol Ag is derived from Latin argentum		 11 5 d-block 107.87 10.49 1234.93 2435 0.235 1.93 0.075 primordial solid
48 Cd Cadmium Neo-Latin cadmia, 'calamine', from King Kadmos, legendary founder of Thebes 12 5 d-block 112.41 8.65 594.22 1040 0.232 1.69 0.159 primordial solid
49 In Indium Latin indicum, 'indigo', the blue colour found in its spectrum 13 5 p-block 114.82 7.31 429.75 2345 0.233 1.78 0.25 primordial solid
50 Sn Tin English, from a common Germanic root
 ·  Symbol Sn is derived from Latin stannum		 14 5 p-block 118.71 7.265 505.08 2875 0.228 1.96 2.3 primordial solid
51 Sb Antimony Latin antimonium, the origin of which is uncertain: folk etymologies suggest it is derived from Greek antí ('against') + mónos ('alone'), or Old French anti-moine, 'Monk's bane', but it could plausibly be from or related to Arabic ʾiṯmid, 'antimony', reformatted as a Latin word
 ·  Symbol Sb is derived from Latin stibium 'stibnite'		 15 5 p-block 121.76 6.697 903.78 1860 0.207 2.05 0.2 primordial solid
52 Te Tellurium Latin tellus, 'the ground, earth' 16 5 p-block 127.60 6.24 722.66 1261 0.202 2.1 0.001 primordial solid
53 I Iodine French iode, from Greek ioeidḗs, 'violet' 17 5 p-block 126.90 4.933 386.85 457.4 0.214 2.66 0.45 primordial solid
54 Xe Xenon Greek xénon, neuter form of xénos 'strange, foreign' 18 5 p-block 131.29 0.005894 161.4 165.03 0.158 2.60 3×10−5 primordial gas
55 Cs Caesium Latin caesius, 'sky-blue' 1 6 s-block 132.91 1.93 301.59 944 0.242 0.79 3 primordial solid
56 Ba Barium Greek barýs, 'heavy' 2 6 s-block 137.33 3.51 1000 2170 0.204 0.89 425 primordial solid
57 La Lanthanum Greek lanthánein, 'to lie hidden' f-block groups 6 f-block 138.91 6.162 1193 3737 0.195 1.1 39 primordial solid
58 Ce Cerium Ceres, a dwarf planet, considered a planet at the time f-block groups 6 f-block 140.12 6.770 1068 3716 0.192 1.12 66.5 primordial solid
59 Pr Praseodymium Greek prásios dídymos, 'green twin' f-block groups 6 f-block 140.91 6.77 1208 3793 0.193 1.13 9.2 primordial solid
60 Nd Neodymium Greek néos dídymos, 'new twin' f-block groups 6 f-block 144.24 7.01 1297 3347 0.19 1.14 41.5 primordial solid
61 Pm Promethium Prometheus, a figure in Greek mythology f-block groups 6 f-block [145] 7.26 1315 3273 – 1.13 2×10−19 from decay solid
62 Sm Samarium Samarskite, a mineral named after V. Samarsky-Bykhovets, Russian mine official f-block groups 6 f-block 150.36 7.52 1345 2067 0.197 1.17 7.05 primordial solid
63 Eu Europium Europe f-block groups 6 f-block 151.96 5.244 1099 1802 0.182 1.2 2 primordial solid
64 Gd Gadolinium Gadolinite, a mineral named after Johan Gadolin, Finnish chemist, physicist and mineralogist f-block groups 6 f-block 157.25 7.90 1585 3546 0.236 1.2 6.2 primordial solid
65 Tb Terbium Ytterby, Sweden, where it was found; see also yttrium, erbium, ytterbium f-block groups 6 f-block 158.93 8.23 1629 3503 0.182 1.2 1.2 primordial solid
66 Dy Dysprosium Greek dysprósitos, 'hard to get' f-block groups 6 f-block 162.50 8.540 1680 2840 0.17 1.22 5.2 primordial solid
67 Ho Holmium Neo-Latin Holmia, 'Stockholm' f-block groups 6 f-block 164.93 8.79 1734 2993 0.165 1.23 1.3 primordial solid
68 Er Erbium Ytterby, Sweden, where it was found; see also yttrium, terbium, ytterbium f-block groups 6 f-block 167.26 9.066 1802 3141 0.168 1.24 3.5 primordial solid
69 Tm Thulium Thule, the ancient name for an unclear northern location f-block groups 6 f-block 168.93 9.32 1818 2223 0.16 1.25 0.52 primordial solid
70 Yb Ytterbium Ytterby, Sweden, where it was found; see also yttrium, terbium, erbium f-block groups 6 f-block 173.05 6.90 1097 1469 0.155 1.1 3.2 primordial solid
71 Lu Lutetium Latin Lutetia', 'Paris' 3 6 d-block 174.97 9.841 1925 3675 0.154 1.27 0.8 primordial solid
72 Hf Hafnium Neo-Latin Hafnia, 'Copenhagen' (from Danish havn, harbour) 4 6 d-block 178.49 13.31 2506 4876 0.144 1.3 3 primordial solid
73 Ta Tantalum King Tantalus, father of Niobe from Greek mythology; see also niobium 5 6 d-block 180.95 16.69 3290 5731 0.14 1.5 2 primordial solid
74 W Tungsten Swedish tung sten, 'heavy stone'
 ·  Symbol W is from Wolfram, originally from Middle High German wolf-rahm 'wolf's foam' describing the mineral wolframite[5]		 6 6 d-block 183.84 19.25 3695 5828 0.132 2.36 1.3 primordial solid
75 Re Rhenium Latin Rhenus, 'Rhine' 7 6 d-block 186.21 21.02 3459 5869 0.137 1.9 7×10−4 primordial solid
76 Os Osmium Greek osmḗ, 'smell' 8 6 d-block 190.23 22.59 3306 5285 0.13 2.2 0.002 primordial solid
77 Ir Iridium Iris, the Greek goddess of the rainbow 9 6 d-block 192.22 22.56 2719 4701 0.131 2.20 0.001 primordial solid
78 Pt Platinum Spanish platina, 'little silver', from plata 'silver' 10 6 d-block 195.08 21.45 2041.4 4098 0.133 2.28 0.005 primordial solid
79 Au Gold English, from the same Proto-Indo-European root as 'yellow'
 ·  Symbol Au is derived from Latin aurum		 11 6 d-block 196.97 19.3 1337.33 3129 0.129 2.54 0.004 primordial solid
80 Hg Mercury Mercury, Roman god of commerce, communication, and luck, known for his speed and mobility
 ·  Symbol Hg is derived from its Latin name hydrargyrum, from Greek hydrárgyros, 'water-silver'		 12 6 d-block 200.59 13.534 234.43 629.88 0.14 2.00 0.085 primordial liquid
81 Tl Thallium Greek thallós, 'green shoot or twig' 13 6 p-block 204.38 11.85 577 1746 0.129 1.62 0.85 primordial solid
82 Pb Lead English, from Proto-Celtic *ɸloudom, from a root meaning 'flow'
 ·  Symbol Pb is derived from Latin plumbum		 14 6 p-block 207.2 11.34 600.61 2022 0.129 1.87 (2+)
2.33 (4+)		 14 primordial solid
83 Bi Bismuth German Wismut, via Latin and Arabic from Greek psimúthion, 'white lead' 15 6 p-block 208.98 9.78 544.7 1837 0.122 2.02 0.009 primordial solid
84 Po Polonium Latin Polonia, 'Poland', home country of Marie Curie, who discovered it 16 6 p-block [209][lower-alpha 1] 9.196 527 1235 – 2.0 2×10−10 from decay solid
85 At Astatine Greek ástatos, 'unstable', alluding to its lack of stable isotopes 17 6 p-block [210] (8.91–8.95) 575 610 – 2.2 3×10−20 from decay unknown phase
86 Rn Radon Radium emanation, originally the name of the isotope radon-222 18 6 p-block [222] 0.00973 202 211.3 0.094 2.2 4×10−13 from decay gas
87 Fr Francium France, home country of discoverer Marguerite Perey 1 7 s-block [223] (2.48) 281 890 – >0.79[6] ~ 1×10−18 from decay unknown phase
88 Ra Radium Coined in French by discoverer Marie Curie, from Latin radius, 'ray' 2 7 s-block [226] 5.5 973 2010 0.094 0.9 9×10−7 from decay solid
89 Ac Actinium Greek aktís, 'ray' f-block groups 7 f-block [227] 10 1323 3471 0.12 1.1 5.5×10−10 from decay solid
90 Th Thorium Thor, the Scandinavian god of thunder f-block groups 7 f-block 232.04 11.7 2115 5061 0.113 1.3 9.6 primordial solid
91 Pa Protactinium English prefix proto- (from Greek prôtos, 'first, before') + actinium, since actinium is produced through the radioactive decay of protactinium f-block groups 7 f-block 231.04 15.37 1841 4300 – 1.5 1.4×10−6 from decay solid
92 U Uranium Uranus, the seventh planet in the Solar System f-block groups 7 f-block 238.03 19.1 1405.3 4404 0.116 1.38 2.7 primordial solid
93 Np Neptunium Neptune, the eighth planet in the Solar System f-block groups 7 f-block [237] 20.45 917 4273 – 1.36 ≤ 3×10−12 from decay solid
94 Pu Plutonium Pluto, a dwarf planet in the Solar System, considered a planet at the time f-block groups 7 f-block [244] 19.85 912.5 3501 – 1.28 ≤ 3×10−11 from decay solid
95 Am Americium The Americas, where the element was first synthesised, by analogy with its homologue § europium f-block groups 7 f-block [243] 12 1449 2880 – 1.13 – synthetic solid
96 Cm Curium Pierre Curie and Marie Curie, French physicists and chemists f-block groups 7 f-block [247] 13.51 1613 3383 – 1.28 – synthetic solid
97 Bk Berkelium Berkeley, California, where the element was first synthesised f-block groups 7 f-block [247] 14.78 1259 2900 – 1.3 – synthetic solid
98 Cf Californium California, where the element was first synthesised in the LBNL laboratory f-block groups 7 f-block [251] 15.1 1173 (1743)[lower-alpha 2] – 1.3 – synthetic solid
99 Es Einsteinium Albert Einstein, German physicist f-block groups 7 f-block [252] 8.84 1133 (1269) – 1.3 – synthetic solid
100 Fm Fermium Enrico Fermi, Italian physicist f-block groups 7 f-block [257] (9.7)[lower-alpha 2] (1125)[7]
(1800)[8]		 – – 1.3 – synthetic unknown phase
101 Md Mendelevium Dmitri Mendeleev, Russian chemist who proposed the periodic table f-block groups 7 f-block [258] (10.3) (1100) – – 1.3 – synthetic unknown phase
102 No Nobelium Alfred Nobel, Swedish chemist and engineer f-block groups 7 f-block [259] (9.9) (1100) – – 1.3 – synthetic unknown phase
103 Lr Lawrencium Ernest Lawrence, American physicist 3 7 d-block [266] (14.4) (1900) – – 1.3 – synthetic unknown phase
104 Rf Rutherfordium Ernest Rutherford, chemist and physicist from New Zealand 4 7 d-block [267] (17) (2400) (5800) – – – synthetic unknown phase
105 Db Dubnium Dubna, Russia, where the element was discovered in the JINR laboratory 5 7 d-block [268] (21.6) – – – – – synthetic unknown phase
106 Sg Seaborgium Glenn T. Seaborg, American chemist 6 7 d-block [267] (23–24) – – – – – synthetic unknown phase
107 Bh Bohrium Niels Bohr, Danish physicist 7 7 d-block [270] (26–27) – – – – – synthetic unknown phase
108 Hs Hassium Neo-Latin Hassia, 'Hesse', a state in Germany 8 7 d-block [271] (27–29) – – – – – synthetic unknown phase
109 Mt Meitnerium Lise Meitner, Austrian physicist 9 7 d-block [278] (27–28) – – – – – synthetic unknown phase
110 Ds Darmstadtium Darmstadt, Germany, where the element was first synthesised in the GSI laboratories 10 7 d-block [281] (26–27) – – – – – synthetic unknown phase
111 Rg Roentgenium Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen, German physicist 11 7 d-block [282] (22–24) – – – – – synthetic unknown phase
112 Cn Copernicium Nicolaus Copernicus, Polish astronomer 12 7 d-block [285] (14.0) (283±11) (340±10)[lower-alpha 2] – – – synthetic unknown phase
113 Nh Nihonium Japanese Nihon, 'Japan', where the element was first synthesised in the Riken laboratories 13 7 p-block [286] (16) (700) (1400) – – – synthetic unknown phase
114 Fl Flerovium Flerov Laboratory of Nuclear Reactions, part of JINR, where the element was synthesised; itself named after Georgy Flyorov, Russian physicist 14 7 p-block [289] (11.4±0.3) (284±50)[lower-alpha 2] – – – – synthetic unknown phase
115 Mc Moscovium Moscow, Russia, where the element was first synthesised in the JINR laboratories 15 7 p-block [290] (13.5) (700) (1400) – – – synthetic unknown phase
116 Lv Livermorium Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in Livermore, California 16 7 p-block [293] (12.9) (700) (1100) – – – synthetic unknown phase
117 Ts Tennessine Tennessee, United States, where Oak Ridge National Laboratory is located 17 7 p-block [294] (7.1–7.3) (700) (883) – – – synthetic unknown phase
118 Og Oganesson Yuri Oganessian, Russian physicist 18 7 p-block [294] (7) (325±15) (450±10) – – – synthetic unknown phase
  1. Standard atomic weight
    • '1.0080': abridged value, uncertainty ignored here
    • '[97]', [ ] notation: massnumber of most stable isotope
  2. Values in ( ) brackets are predictions
  3. Density (sources)
  4. Melting point in kelvin (K) (sources)
  5. Boiling point in kelvin (K) (sources)
  6. Heat capacity (sources)
  7. Electronegativity by Pauling (source)
  8. Abundance of elements in Earth's crust
  9. Primordial (=Earth's origin), from decay, or synthetic
  10. Phase at Standard state (25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa)
  11. Helium melting point: helium does not solidify at a pressure of 1 bar (0.99 atm). Helium can only solidify at pressures above 25 atmosphere.
  12. Arsenic: element sublimes at one atmosphere of pressure.

See also

References
  1. IUPAC, Compendium of Chemical Terminology, 2nd ed. (the "Gold Book") (1997). Online corrected version: (2006–) "chemical element". doi:10.1351/goldbook.C01022
  2. "Periodic Table – Royal Society of Chemistry". www.rsc.org.
  3. "Online Etymology Dictionary". etymonline.com.
  4. "beryl". Merriam-Webster. Archived from the original on 9 October 2013. Retrieved 27 January 2014.
  5. van der Krogt, Peter. "Wolframium Wolfram Tungsten". Elementymology & Elements Multidict. Archived from the original on 2010-01-23. Retrieved 2010-03-11.
  6. Originally assessed as 0.7 by Pauling but never revised after other elements' electronegativities were updated for precision. Predicted to be higher than that of caesium.
  7. Konings, Rudy J. M.; Beneš, Ondrej. "The Thermodynamic Properties of the 𝑓-Elements and Their Compounds. I. The Lanthanide and Actinide Metals". Journal of Physical and Chemical Reference Data. doi:10.1063/1.3474238.
  8. "Fermium". RSC.
  • Atoms made thinkable, an interactive visualisation of the elements allowing physical and chemical properties of the elements to be compared
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